Law in ancient Egypt

Law in ancient Egypt was primarily based on the concepts of justice and cosmic and social order, symbolically represented by the goddess Ma’at.

The Pharaoh, as the divine ruler, was the source of supreme legislative authority. 

There was also an organized and centralized judicial system consisting of judges, priests and administrative officials.

A set of laws was enacted to regulate the daily lives of individuals, including matters of inheritance, marriage, trade and contracts.

Strict and graded penalties were imposed on violators of the law and order.

Law in ancient Egypt was a fundamental and central part of the stable political and social system, based on principles of truth, order and abstract justice.

These principles were collectively known as the laws of Ma’at, a goddess and symbol embodying these essential concepts of life. 

Ma’at was also an ethical and religious principle that everyone theoretically adhered to, including the Pharaoh himself and represented the balanced social and cosmic order. Maintaining it and applying its principles was considered a sacred religious duty for all.

The Pharaoh, as the son of the god on earth, was directly responsible for applying the principles and laws of Ma’at.

He issued final judgments and decisions and delegated judicial and executive authority to high officials and priests for implementation. 

There was a relatively developed judicial system which included courts of multiple levels and jurisdictions, with specialized judges working under the supervision of the state and its representatives. Additionally, texts or customs existed which served as civil and criminal laws regulating life. 

These laws included regulating matters of marriage, inheritance, debts and commercial contracts, in addition to strict and deterrent penalties for crimes such as murder, theft, corruption and others.

The applied penalties ranged from execution, financial fines, hard labor and physical punishments like flogging and exile, depending on the type and severity of the crime.

The structure of the ancient Egyptian legal system was based on the central principle of Ma’at which promotes values of order, justice, truth and balance.

The Pharaoh held absolute supreme authority over enacting and applying laws and legislation, while priests, judges and administrative officials supervised the courts and the execution of their judgments. 

Religious and local courts existed at that time to adjudicate various civil and criminal cases according to jurisdiction.

Important documents such as contracts and judgments were recorded and documented on papyrus scrolls for preservation and archiving.

The judicial and legal organization in ancient Egypt included at least two basic types of courts:

Religious Courts

These were often located within the precincts of major or funerary temples, such as the Temple of Ptah in Memphis.

The high priest of the temple or his representative was considered the chief judge and ruled according to the principles of the law of Ma’at and religious teachings. He was then called, for example, the judge of the Temple of Ptah.

Civil Courts

Civil courts were sometimes called the city court and consisted of a local judicial body headed by provincial officials or governors.

In the capital of ancient Egypt, such as Thebes or Memphis, it was headed directly by the vizier in his capacity as chief justice.

The vizier had the right to establish special courts to hear specific and important cases.

In ancient Egypt, the concept of “Ma’at” represented the essence of justice, truth, order and cosmic balance.

The ancient Egyptians believed that the stability of the universe and life on earth depended entirely on adherence to its lofty principles and values, whether in managing state affairs or in the daily lives of individuals. 

The Pharaoh was the primary and direct person responsible for maintaining this ideal order to ensure the continuation of prosperity and peace in the country. Additionally, Ma’at was considered the basis and standard for judging the deceased in the court of the afterlife.

The applied penalties varied strictly according to the types and severity of the crime as mentioned in some texts:

• Perpetrators of perjury, premeditated murder, or even failing to assist someone in danger were mostly sentenced to death.
• Those who committed crimes of falsifying weights and measures in markets, fraud in commercial transactions, counterfeiting currency and official seals, or altering texts and writings in public records were punished by having their hand cut off.
• Deprivation of food or severe flogging punished those who committed crimes such as falsely accusing an innocent person of a crime, failing to report a known criminal or a crime that had actually occurred, or even parents who killed their children.
• For perpetrators of crimes like rape, they were sentenced to castration as a deterrent punishment.
• Adulterers, both men and women, were punished with a thousand lashes or other harsh physical punishments.

Ancient Egyptian art and architecture embodied concepts of order, justice and law in various symbolic and artistic forms.

The goddess Ma’at was represented by the symbol of the light feather which symbolizes truth and honesty. 

The Pharaoh was crowned with different crowns as the protector of law and order in the land.

Other symbols of authority and rule also appeared, such as the scepter and the scale which symbolizes justice and the crook staff in temple reliefs to affirm royal and divine authority. 

The walls of some temples and tombs were also decorated with detailed reliefs depicting divine judgments in the afterlife.

This highlights the significant role of art and architecture in establishing and reinforcing concepts of legal and religious laws among the people at that time.

Law in Egypt has continuously evolved throughout different eras up to our present time as follows:

Law in ancient Egypt

Law in ancient Egypt was characterized by strictness, justice and the pursuit of ideal order. It granted individuals certain rights and duties.

The Pharaohs, as the supreme authority, were concerned with laying the foundations of laws and applying them through the state apparatus. 

In the Pharaonic era, the Pharaoh played a major role in legislation and lawmaking, as he was considered the absolute ruler who issued legislation and supervised its implementation. Egyptian laws and judgments were written on stone tablets and papyrus scrolls. 

Among the most important was the general principle of the law of Ma’at which theoretically obliged individuals to live in harmony with justice and the laws of nature. Courts were also established to adjudicate between people and resolve disputes among them.

Law in the Greco-Roman era

Egypt was significantly influenced by Greek and Roman laws during this long period of occupation.

They gradually introduced new concepts and legislation such as written civil codes and organized criminal penalties. 

During this time period, the dominance and complexity of the courts increased and there was a greater focus on regulating financial and commercial relations and inheritance according to their systems.

Law in Islamic Egypt

After the Islamic conquest, the legal systems in Egypt were radically influenced by Islamic Sharia. Jurists and legislators developed and established the provisions of Islamic Sharia in various fields, including criminal matters, financial transactions, inheritance and personal status. 

Sharia provisions were applied in Sharia courts and this had a significant and profound impact on the economic, social and cultural life in Egypt.

Law in the modern era

With the increasing European influence and the impact of Western laws, especially French law, the legal system in Egypt was influenced again. During the Khedival and Royal periods, there was noticeable development and modernization in the legislation of civil liberties and human rights to some extent. 

Even after the Egyptian revolution of 1952, many legal reforms and changes were introduced, including the Personal Status Law, the Penal Code, the Agrarian Reform Law and others.

Law in Egypt in recent years

In recent years, Egypt has witnessed numerous and successive legislative and legal developments, starting with the issuance of the new Egyptian Constitution in 2014 which laid the foundations for legal systems seeking compatibility with international standards in areas such as social justice and human rights. 

Many important laws have also been amended to align with the requirements of the era and new challenges. Thus, Egypt has witnessed and continues to witness continuous evolution and change in its legal system throughout its long history.

The history of law in ancient Egypt demonstrates the development of legal and organizational thought among the ancient Egyptians.

This law focused on applying the concepts of justice, truth and order represented in the principle of Ma’at.

The Pharaoh was a symbol of absolute authority, with a legal and judicial structure established that ensured, to some extent, the rights of individuals and the punishment of offenders.

This ancient system was the cornerstone upon which the evolution of laws was later built in Egypt up to the present time.

What are the main laws in Egypt?

The main laws in present-day Egypt include the Constitution which is considered the highest legal authority, in addition to basic laws such as criminal and civil law.

Among the most prominent are the Penal Code, the Criminal Procedure Law, the Civil Code, Personal Status Laws, Commercial Law, Labor Law and Investment Law.

How many years is law in Egypt?

Islamic Sharia was applied extensively in Egypt after the Islamic conquest in many aspects of life such as commercial, financial, criminal, administrative, civil transactions, personal status and others.

Its application continued primarily approximately until the end of the nineteenth century.

During this period, Egypt began to be increasingly influenced by Western laws, especially French law, where criminal, civil and commercial laws were adopted and transferred from Western laws, while matters of personal status and inheritance largely remained subject to the provisions of Islamic Sharia.

How did ancient Egypt rule?

Ancient Egypt was ruled by an absolute theocratic monarchy, where the Pharaoh was considered a god or the representative of the god on earth and was the supreme authority responsible for enacting laws in the country.

He controlled the army, religion and economy. He was assisted in governance by a council of high priests and senior administrative officials in managing the affairs of the vast state.