Maat

Female deities played a pivotal role in ancient Egyptian religion where their presence was not secondary or marginal but rather they were influential forces representing the foundations of the cosmos, life, and social order. The goddesses embodied concepts of creation, motherhood, protection, wisdom, justice and magic and their influence extended from the daily life of Egyptians to their beliefs about the afterlife. Isis represented the divine mother, protector and great sorceress,

Hathor embodied love, fertility and music, Nekhbet and Wadjet symbolized royal protection while Sekhmet and Bastet expressed power, healing and the balance between violence and mercy. This diversity reflects the ancient Egyptian vision of women as cosmic forces capable of building, protecting and regulating the rhythm of existence.

The goddess Maat stands at the heart of this belief system as the supreme embodiment of the concept of cosmic and moral order. Maat was not just a goddess to be worshiped but a cosmic principle governing the course of the universe ensuring the balance of nature, the stability of society and the justice of rule. She represented truth, justice,

righteousness and order in the face of chaos and preserving her was a sacred duty for gods and humans, led by the pharaoh who was considered the protector of Maat on earth.

Maat was closely associated with the afterlife where the heart of the deceased was weighed against Maat’s feather in the court of Osiris symbolizing the accountability of humans for their actions according to the laws of right and justice.

In this sense, Maat was not just a goddess but the spirit on which the entire universe is based and the scale by which human life is measured in this world and the next.

Maat was an ancient Egyptian goddess who embodies the concepts of truth, balance, order, harmony, law, morality and justice. She was the deity who represented these principles, regulating the movements of stars, seasons and the actions of humans and gods who brought order from chaos at the moment of creation.

Cuneiform texts indicate that the word Maat was pronounced muʀa during the New Kingdom period in Egypt after losing the feminine ending. The feminine ending “t” evolved into “ei” in the Coptic language resulting in the word ⲙⲉⲉ/ⲙⲉ “truth and justice”.

The philosophical antithesis of Maat is Isfet which means injustice, chaos, violence or wrongdoing. Maat represents order and balance while Isfet represents chaos and injustice.

Maat, depicted as a winged goddess in the tomb of Nefertari (1255 BCE), was the daughter of the Egyptian sun god Ra and the wife of Thoth, the god of wisdom who invented writing linking Maat directly to ancient Egyptian rhetoric. Maat (associated with solar, lunar, stellar and Nile movements) represents a concept based on humanity’s attempt to live in a state of natural harmony.

Maat is linked to the weighing of the heart and whether a person has done what is right in their life, thus doing Maat means acting in a way that is flawless or does not err.

Maat was revered to the extent that Egyptian kings often offered her gifts, presenting small statues of Maat, indicating that they were maintaining cosmic order, the interaction between the universe, gods, nature and humans. When rhetoricians attempt to balance their arguments, they practice Maat.

George Kennedy, a historian of rhetoric, defines rhetoric as the transmission of emotions and ideas through a system of symbols, including words to influence the emotions and thoughts of others. Maat sought to influence her audience to act.

In ancient Egyptian texts, the elite Egyptians learned how to be part of the elite class through educational texts such as the Instructions of Ptahhotep which used Maat as a basis for effective principles and rules of rhetoric.

A passage from Ptahhotep presents Maat as a teaching: Be generous as long as you live, what goes out of the storehouse does not return, it is food that is shared that is looked upon, one who is hungry becomes an accuser, one who is deprived becomes an enemy, do not make him a neighbor. Generosity was a man’s memory for years after his office.

Another passage presents the importance of Maat and how wisdom also existed among women at the mills. The lessons learned from Maat here are benevolence, the reader is advised to be kind and generous.

A stronger argument is presented. If you do not feed people, they will become rebels. On the other hand, if you take care of your people, they will take care of your tomb or grave.

The passage from Ptahhotep uses Maat to teach the reader how to be a more effective king. The story of the eloquent peasant is an extended discussion about the nature of Maat where an official under the king is described as taking a noble’s wealth and giving it to a poor man who had been wronged.

Another text describes how the divine king teaches the ignorant wisdom, the outcast becomes beloved, makes the less fortunate imitate the greater and others become the first. One who lacked property has now become a property owner.

The goddess Maat holds a special place in ancient Egyptian mythology as the wife of Thoth, the god of writing and wisdom, which created a direct link between Maat and Egyptian rhetoric.

Maat embodies the natural harmony and sense of justice that humanity seeks to achieve in all aspects of reality, including lunar, solar, stellar, and Nile movements. The concept of Maat was closely linked to the process of governance, where the deceased is evaluated based on their actions and whether they lived a straight life according to Maat’s principles.

Maat was highly respected, to the extent that kings and queens offered small statues of her to the gods as an expression of their commitment to maintaining the cosmic order that balances the cosmic, natural, divine and human worlds.

The ancient Egyptians defined rhetoric as the transmission of thought and emotion through symbols and ancient Egyptian words with the intention of influencing others and Maat was considered the very force of persuasion that drives people to act for the common good.

Writing letters was an essential part of daily life in ancient Egypt representing a means of communication between superiors and families. These letters were written by scribes on behalf of kings. Scribes used Maat’s principles to enhance the persuasive power of letters highlighting the importance of language in building a strong community identity.

In letters, Maat was used for persuasion and to swear loyalty to the pharaoh. Common people invoked Maat to appease their superiors and achieve their demands as any public disagreement with an authority figure was considered inappropriate.

Among the most famous ancient Egyptian texts that used Maat to spread principles of goodness and good governance are the “Instructions of Ptahhotep” and the “Story of the Eloquent Peasant” which clearly shows the blessed nature of Maat.

The origins of Maat, the ancient Egyptian goddess of truth and justice, date back to the Old Kingdom period where surviving records indicate she was the fundamental principle of nature and society. The Pyramid Texts of Unas (circa 2375 BCE and 2345 BCE) are among the oldest surviving examples that mention Maat.

Maat was considered the counterpart of Thoth, the god of writing and knowledge due to their similar attributes. She was also associated with Seshat, the goddess of writing and measurement, a lesser known deity.

Maat’s primary role in ancient Egyptian religion was related to the weighing of the heart which took place in the Duat where her feather was the measure that determined whether the spirits of the deceased would successfully reach the afterlife.

From the 18th dynasty (circa 1550 – 1295 BCE), Maat was described as the daughter of Ra indicating that the pharaohs believed they ruled through her authority.

The records from ancient Egypt show that Maat was the fundamental principle governing the natural world and society. Historical evidence from the time of Pharaoh Menes (circa 2925 BCE) indicates the application of the “42 Laws of Maat” among the ancient Egyptian people.

Maat’s influence was great because of her important role centered around the “weighing of the heart” in the Duat. During this ritual, Maat’s feather was used to determine whether the spirits residing in the heart of the deceased could pass through the gates of heaven.

Maat embodied the ultimate model of justice, truth and harmony and the pharaohs were often depicted carrying symbols associated with her to emphasize their commitment to upholding her principles and laws.

In ancient times, Maat represented the moral and legal foundation for the Egyptians. She was the reference that guided the behavior of people, society and the state and she was even seen as reflecting the order of the entire universe.

Based on this principle, every Egyptian was expected to live according to the values of truth, justice and honesty, whether in their family, in social interactions or in their relationship with nature, their country and the gods they worshipped. This concept appeared out of the people’s need for organization in the early state, after uniting different groups with conflicting interests.

A comprehensive system was required to prevent chaos and maintain stability. Soon, Maat became the central basis of ancient Egyptian law and from early times, the king described himself as the “Lord of Maat,” responsible for bringing her principles to life and enforcing them through his commands, thoughts and heart while standing against her opposite, Isfet which represented chaos, injustice, violence and falsehood.

As Egyptian thought developed, the influence of Maat expanded to cover all aspects of existence from preserving cosmic balance and connecting the elements of the world to the changing of the seasons, the movements of celestial bodies, religious rituals and human virtues such as honesty, good intention and fairness in social interactions.

The ancient Egyptians believed that the universe was a single, harmonious unit and any disruption to this balance could bring harm to both individuals and the state.

Maat called for respect for traditions, maintaining neutrality and striving for righteous action. She also encouraged the wealthy to help the poor as reflected in tomb inscriptions and the teachings of wise men like Ptahhotep.

Maat was often shown as a young goddess wearing an ostrich feather on her head which became the symbol used in the weighing of the heart ceremony to determine the fate of the soul in the afterlife.

Pharaohs were seen as the true bearers of this sacred responsibility living according to Maat and carrying the duty to preserve order and harmony in the world. Some even included the name of Maat in their royal titles to confirm their divine legitimacy and show their commitment to her principles.

Although few written sources about ancient Egyptian law have survived, they clearly show that Maat was the foundation and guiding spirit of justice. Rather than being a collection of detailed legal rules, Maat functioned as a general moral standard that shaped the values and thinking behind the judicial system.

Beginning in the Fifth Dynasty, the official responsible for justice, the vizier, carried the title “Priest of Maat”. In later periods, judges wore symbols of Maat which highlighted how central this concept was to the practice of justice in ancient Egypt.

Egyptian philosophers and scholars relied heavily on the Sebayt texts, a form of wisdom literature that discussed common social and professional situations and explained how they should be handled in accordance with the spirit of Maat.

These writings were sometimes called “Maat literature” because they offered practical moral guidance without turning those ideas into fixed legal codes.

During the Greek period in Egypt, Greek law existed alongside traditional Egyptian law. Egyptian law stood out as one of the earliest systems to grant women clear legal rights including legal independence and the ability to own property. These practices later influenced the more restrictive legal traditions of the Greeks and Romans.

After the Roman conquest of Egypt, Roman law was imposed across the country following the legal system used throughout the Roman Empire. Despite this, ancient Egyptian law remains a distinctive and important model of justice based on fairness, balance and moral responsibility and it continues to inspire modern legal and philosophical thought.

The ancient Egyptians believed that a person’s destiny was decided by weighing their heart against Maat’s feather, which represented truth and justice, in the Hall of Two Truths. The heart was seen as a central part of the soul so it was kept inside the body during mummification.

If the heart was lighter than or equal to Maat’s feather, it meant the person had lived a good and virtuous life. In that case, they were allowed to enter the Fields of Aaru, where they would meet Osiris who later became the guardian of Aaru’s gates instead of Anubis.

If the heart was heavier than the feather, it was eaten by the goddess Ammit and the person was condemned to wander in the Duat.

Most of what we know about this ritual comes from The Book of the Dead, especially the Papyrus of Ani which shows Anubis supervising the weighing while Ammit waits for the result.

During this important moment, the deceased would recite the “42 Negative Confessions” in front of Maat’s assessors to prove their innocence and righteousness.

The Scribes of Maat
The moral rules of Maat gave rise to a special group in ancient Egypt called the “Sesh” which included skilled scribes, thinkers and government workers.

They worked as civil servants and played a key role in spreading Maat’s values throughout society. The scribes held important positions and helped pass on political, religious and commercial knowledge.

Writing was a big part of daily life. Scribes recorded taxes, helped communicate during natural disasters and wrote letters for people who couldn’t write themselves.

They often read these letters publicly which made them an important link between all layers of society. Official documents used third person language to represent the king’s voice.

Egyptian writing had more than just a storytelling purpose; it carried deep symbolic meaning showing religious beliefs and social hierarchy. Scribes made sure the poor could send their complaints to the government preventing abuse of power. They also had educational texts that stressed justice and warned against misusing authority showing their role in the legal system.

Thoth, the god of wisdom, was closely linked with Maat. Scribes were encouraged to follow Maat’s teachings in both their work and personal life. This inspired “Maat literature” which guided people on how to live in a fair, honest and balanced way.

Scribe Schools in Ancient Egypt
During the Middle Kingdom, scribe schools became very important in Egypt. Even though writing existed earlier, there was no clear formal education system in the Old Kingdom.

The main purpose of these schools was to teach children who couldn’t read or write and train them to become skilled scribes who could work for the government and help society while improving their own lives. The focus of education was reading, writing and arithmetic.

Students were carefully selected from all over Egypt. Most were boys but some exceptional girls also received the same education. Depending on how far they lived, students either stayed at the school or with their families. Education started early, usually between ages 5 and 10 and primary education lasted about four years.

After primary school, students could become apprentices to a teacher which was an advanced stage giving them more skills and a higher status in the scribal profession. The curriculum included two types of writing: sacred writing that taught Maat and her moral values and instructional writing that taught practical skills like measuring land, tracking Nile changes, calculating taxes, keeping business records and distributing resources.

In primary school, teaching was done in groups with students sitting around the teacher. They learned in different ways like reading aloud, reciting, practicing arithmetic silently and copying short texts or classical works to practice writing.

Learning writing followed clear steps: first, students memorized a short passage with the teacher’s help then copied paragraphs onto wooden tablets or pottery pieces. When the teacher saw progress, students moved on to Middle Egyptian texts focusing on classical works, instructions, vocabulary and grammar.

Besides reading, writing and arithmetic, students learned other skills. Boys practiced physical exercises while girls learned singing, dancing and playing musical instruments.

Performance in Ancient Egyptian Letters
Writing letters became an important part of daily life. It was not just for certain classes but used for communication between families, individuals and their superiors. Egyptians became used to writing letters as a main way to communicate. Letters were not just delivered, scribes read them aloud and sometimes performed them, often writing in a style that reflected the king’s voice.

Because language was the way society understood itself and others, scribes used Maat in letters to make them more persuasive and effective, helping to create a shared language that could convince people.

James Herrick notes that the primary goal of rhetoric is persuasion, changing the recipient’s viewpoint and encouraging them to adopt a particular perspective much like a lawyer attempting to convince a judge of their client’s innocence.

Similarly, Maat was invoked in letters addressed to subordinates to urge loyalty to their superiors and the king. In turn, subordinates would evoke Maat in their letters to express a desire for compliance and obedience.

Given that direct opposition to a superior was socially unacceptable, lower ranking citizens would indirectly invoke Maat as a means to placate the superior’s ego and achieve their desired outcome.

Despite Maat’s great importance, the earliest archaeological evidence of temples dedicated to her dates back to the New Kingdom (c. 1569 to 1081 BCE). Amenhotep III built a temple for Maat in the Karnak complex and texts indicate other temples for her in Memphis and Deir el Medina.

These temples served not only religious purposes but also as venues for court sessions especially during investigations into royal tomb thefts in the reign of Ramses IX.

Ancient Egyptians covered tombs and coffins with funerary texts to ensure safe passage to the afterlife. The Book of the Dead which is also known as The Book of Coming Forth by Day includes the “42 Declarations of Purity” as found in the Papyrus of Ani.

These declarations were not standardized but tailored to each individual’s life, sharing the goal of satisfying Maat and following her principles.

They contained negations of sins believed to have the power to erase errors from the deceased’s record in the afterlife.

E.A. Wallis Budge translated these confessions, revealing a clear picture of Egyptian ethics based on truth, justice and non harm to others, gods or society.

In modern times, interpretations known as the “42 Positive Principles of Maat” reflect the same values in a positive ethical formulation such as respecting life, justice, truth, compassion and harmony with others and nature.

The 42 Negative Confessions of Maat were:

• I have not sinned.
• I have not committed robbery with violence.
• I have not stolen.
• I have not killed men or women.
• I have not wasted grain.
• I have not diminished measures.
• I have not stolen the property of gods.
• I have not lied.
• I have not stolen food.
• I have not been sullen.
• I have not committed adultery, nor have I lied to men.
• I have not caused anyone to weep.
• I have not been deceitful.
• I have not encroached on others’ property.
• I have not monopolized grain.
• I have not usurped land.
• I have not revealed secrets.
• I have not brought false accusations.
• I have not disputed over property.
• I have not slept with a married woman.
• I have not terrorized anyone.
• I have not transgressed the law.
• I have not been quick-tempered.
• I have not neglected true words.
• I have not cursed.
• I have not been violent.
• I have not distorted the truth.
• I have not been impatient.
• I have not spread rumors.
• I have not harmed anyone, nor have I done evil.
• I have not opposed the king.
• I have not waded in water.
• My voice has not been loud with pride or anger.
• I have not cursed a god.
• I have not boasted.
• I have not harmed the bread of the gods.
• I have not stolen the cakes of the blessed dead.
• I have not stolen the cakes of youth.
• I have not bound a god of my city.
• I have not killed sacred cattle.
• I have not caused a spirit to leave its place.
• I have not withheld water from those who needed it.

The Role of Assessors of Maat in Keeping Egypt United
The Papyrus of Nebseni talks about 42 assessors of Maat who were minor gods representing Egypt’s 42 united nomes. The deceased would address their confessions to each of these gods, saying their name and the name they belonged to, showing that all of Egypt was forever united.

These assessors got their power and status from Maat, and they received offerings as guardians of truth and order.

Funerary Texts and Maat’s Lasting Influence
Ancient Egyptians were often buried with funerary texts to guide them in the afterlife and to make sure they stayed in harmony with Maat after death. Even though the texts could be slightly different from one tomb to another, they all showed Maat as the foundation of truth, ethics and order.

The confessions in these texts reflected how people lived their lives. They also included words of acquittal declaring the person innocent. It was believed that these written words could erase sins and help the deceased live forever in peace.

Maat’s Influence on Modern Ideas
The principles of Maat brought harmony and justice to Egyptian society, helping it become an immortal civilization and a symbol of hope and glory. Egypt’s legacy which was built on these values can still inspire people today and be seen in its history, culture and monuments.

What was the Role of Assessors of Maat in Keeping Egypt United?

The Papyrus of Nebseni talks about 42 assessors of Maat who were minor gods representing Egypt’s 42 united nomes. The deceased would address their confessions to each of these gods, saying their name and the name they belonged to, showing that all of Egypt was forever united.

These assessors got their power and status from Maat, and they received offerings as guardians of truth and order.

What was the influence of Maat on Modern Ideas?

The principles of Maat brought harmony and justice to Egyptian society, helping it become an immortal civilization and a symbol of hope and glory. Egypt’s legacy which was built on these values can still inspire people today and be seen in its history, culture and monuments.

What were the 42 Negative Confessions of Maat?

• I have not sinned.
• I have not committed robbery with violence.
• I have not stolen.
• I have not killed men or women.
• I have not wasted grain.
• I have not diminished measures.
• I have not stolen the property of gods.
• I have not lied.
• I have not stolen food.
• I have not been sullen.
• I have not committed adultery, nor have I lied to men.
• I have not caused anyone to weep.
• I have not been deceitful.
• I have not encroached on others’ property.
• I have not monopolized grain.
• I have not usurped land.
• I have not revealed secrets.
• I have not brought false accusations.
• I have not disputed over property.
• I have not slept with a married woman.
• I have not terrorized anyone.
• I have not transgressed the law.
• I have not been quick-tempered.
• I have not neglected true words.
• I have not cursed.
• I have not been violent.
• I have not distorted the truth.
• I have not been impatient.
• I have not spread rumors.
• I have not harmed anyone, nor have I done evil.
• I have not opposed the king.
• I have not waded in water.
• My voice has not been loud with pride or anger.
• I have not cursed a god.
• I have not boasted.
• I have not harmed the bread of the gods.
• I have not stolen the cakes of the blessed dead.
• I have not stolen the cakes of youth.
• I have not bound a god of my city.
• I have not killed sacred cattle.
• I have not caused a spirit to leave its place.
• I have not withheld water from those who needed it.

What was the importance of The Process of Weighing of the Heart in the Afterlife?

The ancient Egyptians believed that a person’s destiny was decided by weighing their heart against Maat’s feather, which represented truth and justice, in the Hall of Two Truths. The heart was seen as a central part of the soul so it was kept inside the body during mummification.

If the heart was lighter than or equal to Maat’s feather, it meant the person had lived a good and virtuous life. In that case, they were allowed to enter the Fields of Aaru, where they would meet Osiris who later became the guardian of Aaru’s gates instead of Anubis.

If the heart was heavier than the feather, it was eaten by the goddess Ammit and the person was condemned to wander in the Duat.

What was the Rhetorical Concept Of The Goddess Maat?

Maat was an ancient Egyptian goddess who symbolized truth, balance, and cosmic order. As the daughter of the sun god Ra and the wife of Thoth, the god of wisdom and writing, she was closely connected to knowledge and rhetoric.

Maat represented living in harmony with the natural and cosmic order and was central to the judgment of the heart, which determined whether a person had lived a righteous life.

Egyptian kings honored Maat by offering her statues to show they were preserving order in the universe. In rhetoric, practicing balance and fairness in argument reflects the principle of Maat, as rhetoric seeks to influence thoughts and emotions through symbolic communication.