Alexander the Great’s Birth: Date, Place & Historical Background

The birth of Alexander the Great is considered a very important event in ancient history because it was not just the birth of an ordinary child but it was the arrival of a person who would leave a profound mark on history and change the world. Alexander the great of Macedon (in Ancient Greek: Ἀλέξανδρος, pronounced: Alexandros, July 20/21, 356 BCE – June 10/11, 323 BCE) who later known as Alexander the Great and he was born in the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia. His birth shows the beginning of an extraordinary life filled with remarkable achievements and pivotal historical events.

The importance of his birth goes beyond him becoming a king, it lies in the fact that his life and accomplishments fundamentally transformed the ancient world. Through his conquests, he spread Greek culture and integrated it with many eastern cultures, giving rise to the Hellenistic Era, an era whose influence remained evident for centuries after his death. Therefore, it can be said that the birth of Alexander the Great was an extraordinary and highly important event in history, marking the beginning of a life filled with achievements and monumental changes that shaped the world.

Many legends surround Alexander the Great Birth and his childhood. Plutarch says that Alexander was born on the sixth day of the month Hecatombaion, which the Macedonians called “Lous.” This roughly corresponds to July 20th or 21st, 356 BC. Even though ancient calendars did not always match modern ones, this is considered the most accurate date according to historical sources.

Interestingly, Alexander the Great Birth happened on the same day that the magnificent Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, was burned down. The historian Hegesias of Magnesia even joked that it was no surprise the temple burned because Artemis, the goddess of childbirth, was busy attending Alexander’s birth. This story gives a sense of a divine connection, even if ironic between Alexander’s birth and a major historical event.

Before her marriage to Philip was fully completed, Olympias dreamed that her womb was struck by a thunderbolt which set a flame spreading “far and wide” before dying out. Sometime after the wedding, Philip is said to have dreamed that he sealed his wife’s womb with a seal engraved with a lion.

Plutarch offered several interpretations of these dreams: that Olympias was pregnant before her marriage, as indicated by the sealing of the womb, or that Alexander’s father was Zeus. Ancient commentators were divided on whether the ambitious Olympias promoted the story of Alexander’s divine parentage, sometimes claiming that she told Alexander, or that she rejected it as impious.

On the day of Alexander the Great’s birth, Philip was preparing a siege on the city of Potidea in the Chalcidice Peninsula. On that same day, he received news that his general Parmenion had defeated the combined Illyrian and Paeonian armies, and that his horses had won at the Olympic Games.

It is also said that the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus burned down that day and Hegesias of Magnesia commented that it burned because Artemis was away, attending the birth of Alexander. Such legends may have emerged when Alexander became king, possibly at his instigation, to show that he was above ordinary humans and destined for greatness from conception.

The Legendary Significance of Alexander the great’s Birth

Although Plutarch’s account is not a modern historical document with exact dates and references, it clearly highlights Alexander’s extraordinary destiny and the divine favor that surrounded him. Whether these stories are literally true or later exaggerations, they were essential in shaping the legend of Alexander The Great Birth and in building his image as a man touched by the gods.

While Plutarch provides the most detailed account, other historians such as Arrian, Diodorus Siculus, Quintus Curtius Rufus and Justin also wrote about Alexander and generally agree on the events of his life including the year of his birth. However, they do not go into the same level of detail regarding the exact day. These later historians relied on earlier primary sources that are now lost.

The Calendar Considerations of Alexander the Great’s birth

Ancient Greek calendars like the Macedonian and Athenian ones, were based on the moon and often differed from city to city. Because of this, matching these calendars exactly with the Julian calendar which is the basis for our modern Gregorian calendar, is complicated. This can lead to small differences in determining the exact day.

This is why you often see “July 20th or 21st” mentioned when talking about Alexander The Great Birth. There is no single, universally agreed-upon date according to modern standards, although the range is very narrow.

Alexander the Great was born in Macedonia and spent a childhood full of education and special upbringing. From a young age, he was raised by a nurse named Lanike who was the sister of one of his future generals, Cleitus the Black. Lanike was responsible for taking care of him and supervising his daily life, which helped him build a strong and independent personality from early on.

During his childhood, Alexander was taught by important tutors, such as Leonidas, a relative of his mother, and Lysimachus of Acarnania. These tutors taught him reading and writing, music and lyre playing, horseback riding, fighting skills and hunting. This education followed the noble Macedonian way, which aimed to shape a young man who was strong, intelligent and ready to take on great responsibilities.

When Alexander was ten years old, an important event happened in his life. A trader from Thessaly came with a horse for sale and told his father, Philip, that he could buy it for thirteen talents. However, the horse was stubborn and afraid, refusing to be mounted so Philip was upset and decided to get rid of it.

But Alexander noticed something important: the horse was not stubborn, it was afraid of its own shadow. He asked for permission to train it and he patiently worked with the horse until he managed to ride it and control it.

This event was a turning point in Alexander’s life. According to Plutarch, Philip was deeply moved by his son’s courage and ambition. He lifted Alexander up, kissed him, tears in his eyes and said: “My son, you must find a kingdom big enough for your ambitions, for Macedonia is too small for you” and agreed to buy the horse for him.

Alexander named the horse Bucephalus which means “ox-head.” This horse accompanied him on his adventures all the way to India. Bucephalus was not just an ordinary horse, he was a symbol of Alexander’s courage and great ambition. When the horse died of old age, at about thirty years old according to Plutarch, Alexander founded a city named Bucephala in his memory as a way to honor the horse that helped him achieve his great accomplishments.

When Alexander was 13 years old, King Philip II began searching for a tutor for him. He considered scholars like Isocrates and Speusippus, the latter even offering to resign from leading the Academy to take the position. In the end, Philip chose Aristotle and assigned the Temple of the Nymphs at Mieza as the classroom.

In exchange for teaching Alexander, Philip agreed to rebuild Aristotle’s hometown of Stageira which he had destroyed and to repopulate it by buying and freeing the former citizens who were slaves or pardoning those who were in exile.

Mieza acted as a boarding school for Alexander and the children of Macedonian nobles including Ptolemy, Hephaestion and Cassander. Many of these students became his close friends and later his generals, often called the “Companions.” Aristotle taught Alexander and his classmates about medicine, philosophy, ethics, religion, logic and art. Under Aristotle’s guidance, Alexander developed a deep love for the works of Homer, especially the Iliad. Aristotle even gave him an annotated copy which Alexander later carried with him during his military campaigns. Alexander could also recite Euripides by heart.

During his youth, Alexander also met Persian exiles living at the Macedonian court, who had Philip II’s protection for several years while opposing Artaxerxes III. Among them were Artabazos II and his daughter Barsine who might later become Alexander’s mistress, living at the court from 352 to 342 BC. Others included Amminapes, who would become a satrap under Alexander and a Persian noble named Sisines. This exposure gave Alexander and the Macedonian court a strong understanding of Persian matters and may have influenced some of the innovations in how the Macedonian state was managed.

The Suda also mentions that Anaximenes of Lampsacus was one of Alexander’s teachers and that he accompanied Alexander on his campaigns.

The Generalship of Alexander The Great

Alexander The Great perhaps earned the title “the Great” because of his unmatched success as a military commander, he never lost a battle in his life, even though he was often outnumbered. His success came from his smart use of terrain, phalanx, infantry and cavalry tactics, bold strategies and the fierce loyalty of his troops.

The Macedonian phalanx, armed with the sarissa, a spear 6 meters long, was developed by his father Philip II through rigorous training. Alexander used its speed and maneuverability effectively against larger, less organized Persian forces.

Alexander was also aware of the potential for discord among his diverse army which spoke different languages and carried different weapons. He overcame this by personally participating in battles like a Macedonian king, which strengthened the loyalty and trust of his soldiers.

Battle of Granicus (334 BC)

In his first battle in Asia, Alexander used only a small part of his forces: about 13,000 infantry and 5,000 cavalry against a much larger Persian army of 40,000. He placed the phalanx in the center and cavalry and archers on the wings, making his line equal in length to the Persian cavalry line, about 3 km.

The Persian infantry was behind the cavalry which prevented Alexander’s forces from being outflanked. The Macedonian phalanx had a big advantage with its long spears compared to the Persian scimitars and javelins. Macedonian losses were very low compared to the Persians.

Battle of Issus (333 BC)

In his first confrontation with Darius III, Alexander used the same troop arrangement as at Granicus. He personally led the central attack, breaking the Persian army and forcing Darius to retreat.

Battle of Gaugamela

Facing Darius again, the Persians had chariots with scythes and heavily armed cavalry. Alexander used a double phalanx tactic, advancing the center at an angle, opening ranks for the chariots and then reforming. This broke the Persian center and forced Darius to flee once more.

Alexander’s Adaptation to Different Enemies

In Bactria and Sogdiana, Alexander used javelin throwers and archers to prevent outflanking, concentrating his cavalry at the center. In India, when facing Porus’ elephant corps, the Macedonians opened their ranks to surround the elephants and used the sarissa to strike the handlers and push the elephants back. This showed Alexander’s ability to adapt to unfamiliar combat styles.

The Physical Appearance of Alexander The Great

Historical sources conflict with Alexander The Great’s appearance, and early sources give few details. Arrian described him as “very handsome.” During his life, Alexander carefully managed his image by commissioning famous artists like Lysippos for statues, Apelles for paintings, and Pyrgoteles for engravings. He is said to have been so pleased with Lysippos’ work that he forbade other sculptors from making his image.

Statues and mosaics show Alexander with a straight nose, slightly protruding jaw, full lips and deep-set eyes under a strong forehead. His head slightly tilted to the left. His hair was brownish-red or light brown according to some sources. His skin was fair with a slight reddish tone on his face and chest, and his body was said to have a pleasant fragrance, a sign of heroism and divinity in ancient Greek belief.

There is a story that Darius III’s mother, Sisygambis, confused Alexander with his companion Hephaestion because she thought Hephaestion was taller and more physically impressive. Sculptures like the Alexander Sarcophagus and Lysippos’ works are considered the most accurate while other artworks, like Apelles’ painting, made him appear darker. Some mosaics depict him with blond hair and eye stones, though traces suggest brown eyes and chestnut hair.

The Personality of Alexander The Great

Alexander The Great grew up with ambitious parents. His father, Philip II, was a direct role model, and Alexander witnessed his repeated victories despite injuries. This fueled Alexander’s competitive nature and boldness in battle. His mother, Olympias, instilled in him a sense of great destiny and convinced him that it was his fate to conquer the Persian Empire.

He had a violent temper and could be impulsive but he was also logical, intelligent, curious and a fast learner, thanks to Aristotle’s teaching. He practiced self-restraint in physical pleasures but struggled with alcohol. Alexander was charismatic, loved by his soldiers and an inspiring leader.

As he grew older, especially after Hephaestion’s death, he showed signs of megalomania and paranoia. He sometimes believed he was divine or the son of a god, particularly after visiting the Oracle of Ammon at Siwa. He adopted some Persian customs such as proskynesis, to strengthen his rule, though many Macedonians refused these practices. This behavior was often a practical attempt to maintain control over his empire.

Personal Relationships of Alexander The Great

Alexander married three times: Roxana out of love, and Stateira and Parysatis for political reasons. He had two children with Roxana: one died shortly after birth in India and the other was Alexander IV, born after his father’s death. He also reportedly had an illegitimate son named Heracles with Barsine.

He had a close relationship with his friend, general and bodyguard Hephaestion whose death devastated him and may have affected his health and mental state in his final months.

The Sexuality of Alexander The Great

Alexander’s sexuality has been debated. Some Roman sources claim he had a strong attraction to men, mentioning that he kissed the eunuch Bagoas in public. His relationship with Hephaestion may have resembled that of Achilles and Patroclus, though ancient sources do not explicitly describe it as sexual.

Alexander fathered children late in life and maintained a Persian-style harem sparingly, respecting Macedonian traditions. He was infatuated with Roxana but did not force himself on her and formed strong friendships with other women including Ada of Caria and Darius III’s mother, Sisygambis.

At the age of 16, Alexander’s formal education under Aristotle came to an end. During this time, Philip II was waging war against the Thracians in the north, leaving Alexander in charge as regent and heir apparent. While Philip was away, the Thracian tribe of the Maedi revolted against Macedonia. Alexander acted quickly, defeating them and taking control of their territory. He established a city there, naming it Alexandropolis.

When Philip returned, Alexander was sent with a small force to handle revolts in southern Thrace. During his campaign against the Greek city of Perinthus, Alexander reportedly saved his father’s life. At the same time, the city of Amphissa was cultivating lands sacred to Apollo near Delphi, an act considered sacrilegious which gave Philip the chance to intervene further in Greek affairs. While Philip focused on Thrace, Alexander was ordered to raise an army for a campaign in southern Greece.

To prevent other Greek states from intervening, Alexander made it appear that he was preparing to attack Illyria. During this period, the Illyrians invaded Macedonia but were repelled by Alexander.

In 338 BC, Philip and his army joined Alexander, and they marched south through Thermopylae, overcoming the Theban garrison after strong resistance. They continued to occupy Elatea, just a few days’ march from Athens and Thebes. The Athenians, led by Demosthenes, tried to form an alliance with Thebes against Macedonia.

Both Athens and Philip sent envoys to gain Thebes’ favor but Athens succeeded. Philip then marched on Amphissa under the pretext of a request from the Amphictyonic League, capturing mercenaries sent by Demosthenes and accepting the city’s surrender. He returned to Elatea, sending a final peace offer to Athens and Thebes, which both rejected.

As Philip moved south, his opponents tried to block him near Chaeronea in Boeotia. In the Battle of Chaeronea, Philip commanded the right wing while Alexander led the left, supported by Philip’s trusted generals. According to ancient sources, the battle was intense.

Philip intentionally ordered his troops to retreat, luring the inexperienced Athenian hoplites forward and breaking their line. Alexander was the first to break the Theban lines, followed by Philip’s generals. With the enemy’s cohesion destroyed, Philip ordered a full attack, routing the Athenians and surrounding the Thebans who were then defeated.

After this victory, Philip and Alexander marched unopposed into the Peloponnese, devastating much of Laconia and driving the Spartans from several regions. In Corinth, Philip formed a “Hellenic Alliance,” modeled on the old anti-Persian coalition of the Greco-Persian Wars, including most Greek city-states except Sparta. Philip was named Hegemon, or Supreme Commander, of this league (known today as the League of Corinth) and he announced plans to launch a campaign against the Persian Empire.

The Exile and Return of Alexander the Great

When Philip II returned to Pella in 338 BC, he fell in love with and married Cleopatra Eurydice, the niece of his general Attalus. This marriage made Alexander’s position as heir less secure because any child born to Cleopatra Eurydice would be a fully legitimate heir to the Macedonian throne, while Alexander was only half-Macedonian. During the wedding banquet, a drunken Attalus publicly prayed to the gods that the marriage would produce a legitimate heir which greatly angered Alexander.

According to Plutarch, Alexander threw a cup at Attalus and shouted, “You villain! Am I then a bastard?” Philip, taking Attalus’s side, angrily tried to strike his son but he slipped and fell, allowing Alexander to mock him, saying, “See there the man who prepares to pass from Europe into Asia is overturned in moving from one seat to another.”

In 337 BC, Alexander fled Macedonia with his mother Olympias. He left her with her brother, King Alexander I of Epirus, in Dodona, the capital of the Molossians. Alexander then went to Illyria, where he took refuge with one or more Illyrian kings, possibly Glaucias and was welcomed as a guest, even though he had defeated them in battle a few years earlier. It seems that Philip never truly intended to disown his politically and militarily trained son. With the help of a family friend, Demaratus, who mediated between Alexander and Philip, Alexander returned to Macedonia after six months.

The following year, the Persian satrap of Caria, Pixodarus, offered his eldest daughter in marriage to Alexander’s half-brother, Philip Arrhidaeus. Olympias and several of Alexander’s friends believed this meant that Philip intended to make Arrhidaeus his heir. In response, Alexander sent an actor, Thessalus of Corinth, to inform Pixodarus that his daughter should not be offered to an illegitimate son, but to Alexander instead. When Philip learned of this, he stopped the negotiations and scolded Alexander for attempting to marry a Carian princess, explaining that he had planned a better bride for him.

As a consequence, Philip banished four of Alexander’s closest companions Harpalus, Nearchus, Ptolemy and Erigyius and ordered the Corinthians to bring Thessalus before him in chains.

Alexander’s Accession

On the 24th day of the Macedonian month Dios, which most likely corresponds to October 25, 336 BC, Philip II, the father of Alexander, was assassinated at Aigai (near present-day Vergina) while attending the wedding celebration of his daughter Cleopatra to Olympias’s brother, Alexander I of Epirus.

The murderer was Pausanias, the captain of Philip’s bodyguards, who, according to Diodorus, may also have been Philip’s lover. While attempting to flee, Pausanias stumbled over a vine and was killed by those pursuing him, among whom were two of Alexander’s companions, Perdiccas and Leonnatus. At only twenty years of age, Alexander was immediately declared king by the Macedonian nobility and the army.

Consolidation of Power

Once king, Alexander acted swiftly to secure his throne. He executed his cousin, the former Amyntas IV and had two Macedonian princes from Lyncestis killed for their involvement in Philip’s assassination, sparing only Alexander Lyncestes. Olympias arranged for Cleopatra Eurydice and her daughter Europa to be burned alive, which enraged Alexander. He also ordered the murder of Attalus, Cleopatra’s uncle and commander of the advance guard in Asia Minor who had insulted him and was possibly plotting against him. Alexander spared his half-brother Arrhidaeus, who was mentally disabled, likely due to poisoning by Olympias.

Suppressing Revolts and Securing Macedonia

News of Philip’s death triggered uprisings across Macedonia, including Thebes, Athens, Thessaly and the Thracian tribes to the north. Alexander responded quickly. Ignoring advice to use diplomacy, he raised 3,000 Macedonian cavalry and rode south toward Thessaly. He cleverly surprised the Thessalian army by crossing Mount Ossa overnight, placing his troops in their rear. The Thessalians surrendered immediately and joined Alexander’s cavalry. He then moved toward the Peloponnese, stopping at Thermopylae, where he was recognized as the leader of the Amphictyonic League, before heading to Corinth.

During his stay in Corinth, Alexander famously met the philosopher Diogenes the Cynic. When Alexander asked what he could do for him, Diogenes asked Alexander to move aside as he was blocking the sunlight. Alexander reportedly admired this response, saying, “If I were not Alexander, I would like to be Diogenes.” At Corinth, Alexander took the title of Hegemon or leader and like his father, was appointed commander for the upcoming war against Persia. He also received news of a Thracian uprising which required his attention.

Balkan Campaign and Northern Security

Before beginning his Asian campaign, Alexander moved to secure Macedonia’s northern borders. In the spring of 335 BC, he led forces to suppress multiple revolts. Starting from Amphipolis, he defeated the Independent Thracians at Mount Haemus, then marched into the land of the Triballi, defeating their army near the Lyginus River, a tributary of the Danube. Alexander crossed the Danube at night, surprising the Getae tribe and forcing them to retreat after the first cavalry encounter.

When news arrived of revolts by the Illyrian chieftain Cleitus and King Glaukias of the Taulantii, Alexander marched west, defeating both rulers and forcing them to flee with their forces. These victories secured Macedonia’s northern frontier.

Destruction of Thebes and Greek Submission

While Alexander was securing the north, Thebes and Athens rebelled again. Alexander quickly moved south. The Thebans decided to resist, but their defense was ineffective. Alexander destroyed the city and divided its territory among other Boeotian cities. The fall of Thebes intimidated Athens, bringing temporary peace to all of Greece. With his position in Greece secured, Alexander prepared for his Asian campaign, leaving Antipater as regent in Macedonia.

After capturing Tyre, most of the towns along the route to Egypt quickly surrendered to Alexander the Great. However, he faced strong resistance in Gaza. The fortress was heavily fortified and built on a hill, requiring a challenging siege. Alexander’s engineers warned him that the height of the mound would make it nearly impossible to capture but this only motivated him to succeed. After three failed assaults, Gaza finally fell, although Alexander was seriously wounded in the shoulder during the battle. As in Tyre, all men of military age were killed while women and children were sold into slavery.

Crowning and Rule in Egypt

Egypt was just one of the many territories Alexander took from the Persians. After visiting the Siwa Oasis, he was crowned in the Temple of Ptah at Memphis. The Egyptian people did not seem to mind that he was a foreigner or that he spent little time in the country during his rule.

Alexander restored temples that had been neglected by the Persians and dedicated new monuments to the Egyptian gods. Near Karnak, in the Temple of Luxor, he built a chapel for the sacred barge. During his brief stay in Egypt, he reformed the taxation system based on Greek models and organized the military occupation of the country. In early 331 BC, he left Egypt to continue his campaign against the Persians.

Recognition as Pharaoh and Divine Status

Alexander entered Egypt in 332 BC and was seen by many Egyptians as a liberator. To legitimize his rule and link himself to the long line of pharaohs, he made sacrifices at Memphis and visited the famous oracle of Amun-Ra at the Siwa Oasis in the Libyan desert. The oracle declared Alexander the son of the god Amun, and from then on, he often referred to Zeus-Ammon as his true father. After his death, coins depicted him with horns, the “Horns of Ammon,” symbolizing his divine status. The Greeks interpreted this as a prophecy sent by the gods to all pharaohs.

Founding of Alexandria

During his time in Egypt, Alexander founded the city of Alexandria which later became the thriving capital of the Ptolemaic Kingdom. After Alexander’s death, control of Egypt passed to Ptolemy I, the son of Lagos who established the Ptolemaic Dynasty that ruled from 305 to 30 BC.

Alexander of Macedon left a significant mark on history. He was not only a military commander who built a vast empire without ever losing a battle but he also achieved important cultural and historical accomplishments. He spread Greek culture in the lands he conquered and began a new era known as the Hellenistic Age. He also founded the city of Alexandria in Egypt which became a key hub for trade between the East and the West.

Sources mention that Alexander gave written instructions to Craterus before his death which are known as the “Alexander’s Final Plans.” Craterus began executing them but the successors did not complete them due to their difficulty and grandeur. Perdiccas mentioned that the army voted against implementing them.

Among his plans were:

• Building a thousand ships larger than triremes with ports and a road along the African coast to the Pillars of Hercules, to invade Carthage and the western Mediterranean.
• Constructing huge temples in Delos, Delphi, Dodona, Dium and Amphipolis as well as a massive temple to Athena in Troy.
• Merging small settlements into larger cities and moving populations between Asia and Europe to promote unity and friendship through marriages and family ties.
• Building a grand tomb for his father Philip, similar to the greatest Egyptian pyramids.
• Invading the Arabian Peninsula.
• Sailing around Africa.

Many scholars doubt the authenticity of these plans and some believe they were exaggerated by Perdiccas to avoid executing them or later invented by the authors of Romance of Alexander.

Alexander The Great’s legacy went far beyond his military conquests and his reign marked a major turning point in both European and Asian history. His campaigns greatly increased contact and trade between the East and West, and vast regions to the east were introduced to Greek civilization and influence. Some of the cities he founded became major cultural centers, many of which survived into the 21st century. Alexander’s chroniclers recorded valuable information about the lands he passed through, while the Greeks themselves developed a sense of belonging to a world beyond the Mediterranean.

Alexander’s influence extended to cultural and civilizational aspects. He successfully blended Greek Hellenistic culture with the eastern cultures of the peoples within his empire. He established more than twenty cities named after him in different regions, the most famous and significant being Alexandria in Egypt which became an important cultural and commercial center.

The establishment of these Greek colonies throughout the lands he conquered contributed to the rise of a new Hellenistic civilization whose influence remained visible in Byzantine traditions until the mid-fifteenth century.

Alexander became a legendary figure in history and stories, and a symbol for military leaders. He was sometimes compared to Achilles and military schools around the world still study his strategies and tactics, considering him a model of successful leadership.

Hellenistic Kingdoms

Alexander’s most immediate legacy was the spread of Macedonian rule across large parts of Asia. At the time of his death, his empire covered approximately 5,200,000 km² (2,000,000 sq mi), making it the largest state of its time. Many of these territories remained under Macedonian control or Greek influence for the next 200–300 years. The successor states that emerged after his death were dominant powers and this period is often called the Hellenistic period.

Even during Alexander’s lifetime, the eastern borders of his empire began to weaken. The power vacuum in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent directly led to the rise of one of the most powerful Indian dynasties in history, the Maurya Empire. Taking advantage of this, Chandragupta Maurya (referred to in Greek sources as “Sandrokottos”), who came from a humble background, took control of Punjab and used this power base to conquer the Nanda Empire.

Founding of Cities

During his conquests, Alexander founded many cities that carried his name, mostly east of the Tigris. The first and most famous was Alexandria in Egypt, which became one of the leading cities of the Mediterranean. The locations of these cities reflected both trade routes and defensive positions.

Initially, many of the cities were small, harsh, and mainly served as defensive garrisons. After Alexander’s death, many Greek settlers tried to return to Greece. However, a century later, many of these cities were thriving with large public buildings and mixed populations of Greeks and local people.

Funding of Temples

Alexander The Great also contributed to religious life and temple construction. In 334 BC, he funded the completion of the Temple of Athena Polias in Priene (modern western Turkey). An inscription at the temple, now in the British Museum, reads: “King Alexander dedicated [this temple] to Athena Polias.” The temple was designed by Pytheos, one of the architects of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus.

Alexander is also credited with founding the Temple of Zeus Bottiaios, in the area where the city of Antioch would later be built. According to Suda, he built a large temple dedicated to Sarapis. Recent research by the British Museum suggests that a Greek temple at Girsu in Iraq may have been founded by Alexander, honoring Zeus and two divine sons, Heracles and Alexander.

The term Hellenization, coined by the historian Johann Gustav Droysen, refers to the spread of Greek language, culture and population into the former Persian Empire after Alexander’s conquests. This process is evident in major Hellenistic cities such as Alexandria, Antioch and Seleucia (near modern Baghdad). Alexander aimed to integrate Greek elements into Persian culture and to create a hybrid Greek-Persian culture, bringing together populations of Asia and Europe.

Although his successors often rejected these policies, Hellenization still occurred widely, alongside a counter movement of “Orientalization” in the successor states. The core of Hellenistic culture promoted through Alexander’s conquests was largely Athenian. The interaction of men from across Greece in his army led to the development of Koine, the “common” Greek dialect which spread throughout the Hellenistic world, became the lingua franca and is the ancestor of modern Greek.

Hellenistic culture influenced town planning, education, local government and art, all rooted in Classical Greek ideals but evolving into new forms characteristic of the Hellenistic period. The New Testament was also written in Koine Greek, showing the lasting linguistic influence. Many aspects of Hellenistic culture continued to influence the Byzantine Empire even in the 15th century.

Hellenization in South and Central Asia

The strongest effects of Hellenization in South and Central Asia can be shown in Afghanistan and India, particularly in the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom and the Indo-Greek Kingdom. Along the Silk Road, Hellenistic culture mixed with Iranian and Buddhist traditions.

In Gandhara (in modern Pakistan), the cosmopolitan art and mythology from the 3rd century BC to the 5th century AD reflect direct contact between Greek and South Asian civilizations. The Edicts of Ashoka mention Greeks converting to Buddhism and receiving Buddhist emissaries showing cultural exchange.

This fusion was called Greco-Buddhism and influenced the development of Buddhist art and philosophy. Greco-Buddhist kingdoms also sent some of the first Buddhist missionaries to China, Sri Lanka and Hellenistic Asia and Europe.

Some of the earliest figurative depictions of the Buddha likely drew inspiration from Greek statues of Apollo. Certain Buddhist ideas, such as Bodhisattvas, resemble Greek heroes and some Mahayana ceremonial practices like burning incense and offering flowers have similarities to Greek rituals. King Menander I likely became a Buddhist and is remembered in Buddhist texts as Milinda.

Hellenization also encouraged trade between East and West. Greek astronomical instruments from the 3rd century BC were found in Ai Khanoum (modern Afghanistan) and Greek ideas of a spherical Earth replaced older Indian cosmological beliefs. Greek astronomical texts influenced Indian astronomy, such as the Yavanajataka and Paulisa Siddhanta.

Greek influence also reached Indian architecture. Examples of the Ionic order appear in Pakistan at the Jandial Temple near Taxila, while capitals with Ionic designs exist in Pataliputra (Patna). The Corinthian order is prominent in Gandhara art, particularly in Indo-Corinthian capitals.

Alexander the Great died on either 10 or 11 June 323 BC in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar II in Babylon, at the age of 32. There are different accounts of his death. According to Plutarch, about 14 days before his death, Alexander entertained Admiral Nearchus and spent the night and the following day drinking with Medius of Larissa. He developed a fever that worsened until he could no longer speak. Soldiers were allowed to file past him while he silently waved.

In another account, Diodorus wrote that Alexander became ill after drinking a large bowl of unmixed wine in honor of Heracles and suffered 11 days of weakness without a fever, eventually dying in pain. Arrian also mentions this version, though Plutarch specifically rejected it.

Theories About Alexander’s Death

Because of the history of political assassination in Macedonia and Alexander’s young age, many speculated that he was poisoned. Diodorus, Plutarch, Arrian and Justin all mention this theory. Justin claims Alexander was poisoned in a conspiracy, while Plutarch dismisses it as false. Diodorus and Arrian only included it for completeness. The alleged plot supposedly involved Antipater, replaced as Macedonian viceroy by Craterus, and his son Iollas, Alexander’s wine-pourer. Some even suggested Aristotle might have been involved.

One strong argument against poisoning is that Alexander fell ill for twelve days before dying, and such slow-acting poisons were probably unavailable at the time. Modern research has suggested possible causes including the plant Veratrum album (white hellebore) or even contamination with toxic substances from the Styx River.

The Natural Causes

Other explanations suggest natural causes like malaria, typhoid fever, infectious diseases like meningitis or pyogenic spondylitis, acute pancreatitis, West Nile virus or Guillain-Barré syndrome. Alexander’s declining health may have been worsened by years of heavy drinking, battle injuries and grief over the death of his close friend Hephaestion.

Alexander’s Burial and Tomb

Alexander’s body was placed in a gold anthropoid sarcophagus filled with honey which was then placed in a gold casket. A seer named Aristander reportedly foretold that the land where Alexander was buried would remain “happy and unvanquishable forever.” Possessing his body became a symbol of legitimacy for his successors.

While his funeral procession was en route to Macedon, Ptolemy seized the body and took it to Memphis. Later, Ptolemy II Philadelphus moved it to Alexandria. One of Ptolemy’s successors, Ptolemy IX Lathyros, replaced the original sarcophagus with a glass one to convert the gold into coins. In 2014, a large tomb from Alexander’s era was discovered in northern Greece at Amphipolis, likely built for his close companion Hephaestion rather than Alexander himself.

Famous Roman leaders like Pompey, Julius Caesar and Augustus visited Alexander’s tomb in Alexandria. Augustus reportedly damaged the nose of Alexander’s mummified body and Caligula took his breastplate. Around AD 200, Emperor Septimius Severus closed the tomb to the public.

The Alexander Sarcophagus

The “Alexander Sarcophagus,” discovered near Sidon and now in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum, is named for its carvings of Alexander and his companions fighting Persians and hunting, not because it contained his body. It was originally thought to belong to Abdalonymus, the King of Sidon.

Afterdeath and Succession

After Alexander’s death, his generals and companions struggled for control. Demades compared the Macedonian army to a blinded Cyclops, moving chaotically and without direction. Leosthenes similarly described the anarchy among the generals as a blind Cyclops groping in every direction, showing how confused and disorganized the army became after losing their leader.

Events After His Death

Alexander’s body was placed in a human-shaped golden coffin, filled with honey and placed inside another golden coffin. According to Aelian, the seer Aristander predicted that the land where Alexander was buried “would be happy and never conquered.” It is possible that the successors who wanted to control the queen believed that owning his body symbolized legitimacy.

During the transport of his funeral to Macedonia, Ptolemy seized the body and temporarily took it to Memphis. Then Ptolemy II Philadelphus moved it to Alexandria, where it remained until late times. During the reign of Ptolemy IX Lathyrus, the original coffin was replaced with a glass one, and the original coffin was converted into coinage. In 2014, a large tomb from Alexander’s time was discovered in Amphipolis, northern Greece, sparking speculation it was meant for him but it was found to be for Hephaestion, his close friend.

Pompey, Julius Caesar, and Augustus visited Alexander’s tomb in Alexandria. It is said that Augustus broke the nose of the embalmed body. Caligula reportedly took Alexander’s breastplate for himself. Around 200 CE, Emperor Septimius Severus closed the tomb to the public and his son and heir Caracalla visited it. After that, details become unclear.

The so-called “Alexander Sarcophagus” was discovered near Sidon and is now displayed at the Istanbul Archaeology Museum. It is called this because its carvings depict Alexander and his companions in battles and hunting Persians, not because it contained his body.

After Alexander’s death, Demades compared the Macedonian army to the blind Cyclops due to their random and disorganized movements and Justin said that the chaos among the leaders after his death was similar.

Division of the Macedonian Empire

Alexander’s death was so sudden that the news was not immediately believed in Greece. He had no clear heir and his son Alexander IV with Roxana was born after his death. According to Diodorus, when his companions asked him on his deathbed who should inherit the kingdom, he briefly replied “to the strongest” (“tôi kratistôi”). One theory says they misunderstood and heard “to Craterus.” Arrian and Plutarch mentioned that at that moment he was unable to speak.

The most likely version says he handed his personal ring to Perdiccas, commander of the Companion cavalry, thus appointing him as regent.

At first, Perdiccas did not claim power. He suggested that Roxana’s son should be king with a regency for Craterus, Leonnatus and Antipater. But the infantry, led by Meleager, rejected this and supported Alexander’s half-brother, Philip Arrhidaeus. After the birth of Alexander IV, he and Philip III were appointed co-kings, but only symbolically.

Soon, conflicts among the Macedonians emerged and the administrative regions assigned by Perdiccas became the bases for competing leaders. After Perdiccas was assassinated in 321 BCE, Macedonian unity collapsed, and the Wars of the Diadochi lasted 40 years until the Hellenistic Empire settled into three regions, Ptolemaic Egypt, Seleucid Syria and the East and Antigonid Macedonia with Alexander IV and Philip III eventually killed.

Alexander the Great’s birth was not just an ordinary event in history, it had been the beginning of a life that changed the world. From his birth in Macedonia in 356 BCE, legends and signs of divine favor surrounded him which highlighted his extraordinary destiny. His exceptional education under Aristotle, his natural talent for leadership and his love for adventure shaped him into an unbeatable leader.

During his short reign, Alexander expanded his empire from Greece to India, achieving unprecedented military victories and creating the Hellenistic Era which blended Greek and Eastern cultures and influenced the world for centuries after his death.

The importance of his birth was that he was born not only to be a king but to become a symbol of power, ambition, military genius and a spreader of culture and civilization. His birth set in motion the greatest campaigns in history, the foundation of a vast empire and the spread of Hellenistic culture that shaped the East and the West making his name legendary.

1. When was Alexander the Great’s birth?

Alexander the Great’s birth was in 356 BCE in Macedonia. The exact date is around July 20 or 21. 

2. What were the legends about Alexander the Great’s birth?

Legends say Olympias dreamed her womb was struck by lightning and Philip dreamed of sealing it with a lion. These stories suggested divine favor. The Temple of Artemis burned the same day which some interpreted as Artemis attending Alexander’s birth.

3. Who educated Alexander the Great?

Alexander’s early tutors included Leonidas and Lysimachus. At 13, Aristotle became his teacher at Mieza, teaching him philosophy, ethics, medicine, politics and literature. He developed a lifelong love for Homer and learned about Persian culture.

4. How did Alexander tame Bucephalus?

At age ten, Alexander noticed Bucephalus was afraid of his shadow. He trained the horse, impressing his father Philip who said Macedonia was too small for his ambitions. Bucephalus became his loyal companion through all campaigns.

5. What were Alexander’s major battles?

Key victories include the Battles of Granicus, Issus and Gaugamela. He used phalanx formations, cavalry and clever strategies to defeat larger Persian armies. He also adapted tactics against elephants in India and irregular forces in Central Asia.

6. What was Alexander’s approach to culture?

Alexander spread Greek culture across his empire, founding over 20 cities including Alexandria. He promoted Greek language, education, temples and intermarriage, blending Greek and Eastern cultures which created the Hellenistic civilization.

7. How did Alexander become king?

Alexander became king of Macedonia at age 20 after Philip II’s assassination in 336 BCE. He quickly secured the throne, eliminated rivals and suppressed revolts in Greece, preparing for his campaigns against Persia.

8. How did Alexander die and where was he buried?

Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BCE at age 32. Causes may include fever, illness or poisoning. His body was embalmed and eventually taken to Alexandria. His tomb became a symbol of legitimacy, visited by leaders like Julius Caesar and Augustus.

9. What is Alexander’s legacy?

Alexander created one of the largest empires, never losing a battle, and spread Greek culture across three continents. His cities became cultural hubs, his campaigns shaped the Hellenistic Era and his strategies are still studied today.

10. Why is Alexander considered legendary?

Alexander is legendary for his military genius, ambition, and ability to unite cultures. Stories about his courage, intelligence and divine favor made him an enduring symbol of leadership and conquest.

11. Who were Alexander’s parents?

His father was King Philip II of Macedonia and his mother was Olympias of Epirus.

12. Why was Alexander the Great’s birth considered important?

Alexander the Great’s birth was considered very important because it showed the beginning of a life that changed world history. Born in Macedonia in 356 BCE, his arrival was surrounded by legends and signs of divine favor, highlighting his extraordinary destiny. Alexander would later unite Greece, lead unprecedented military campaigns, conquer the Persian Empire and spread Greek culture throughout Asia. His life created the Hellenistic Era, a period of cultural blending that influenced art, science, philosophy and governance for centuries after his death. Therefore, his birth was not just the birth of a prince but the beginning of a leader whose achievements would leave a lasting impact on the world.

13. Why is Alexander the Great’s birth seen as the start of a legendary life?

Alexander’s birth is seen as the start of a legendary life because from the very beginning, his arrival was linked to omens and divine signs. Legends surrounding his birth, his education under Aristotle and his early demonstration of courage, such as taming Bucephalus, all foreshadowed his future greatness. He grew to become an unmatched military commander, a visionary leader and a cultural innovator whose life shaped the ancient world and left a legacy that continues to fascinate historians and the public today.