When Were The Pyramids Built 

Archaeologists believe that Egypt’s large pyramids are the remarkable achievements of the Old Kingdom society, which rose to prominence in the Nile Valley after 3000 B.C. The Egyptian pyramids are not only iconic tourist attractions but also stand as a testament to the ingenuity, architectural mastery and royal ambitions of that era. Historical analysis tells us that the Giza Pyramids were constructed over a span of 85 years, between 2589 and 2504 B.C., a period that highlights the gradual development of Egyptian engineering across different dynasties.

This naturally raises the question: when were the pyramids built and can science confirm the historical chronology? Interest in Egyptian chronology is widespread in both popular and scholarly circles. Scientists have sought to test the accepted historical dates of several Old Kingdom monuments bridging the wonder of these ancient structures with modern methods of verification.

You can start your journey at Saqqara, where Pharaoh Djoser built the Step Pyramid, and then move on to the Great Pyramid of Giza. Each of these iconic sites tells a part of the story of ancient Egyptian civilization, revealing the evolution of architectural techniques and the grandeur of a civilization that continues to fascinate the world today.

Carbon-14 is an unstable form of carbon that slowly decays, making it a scientific clock for estimating the age of organic remains. Some of the first radiocarbon experiments were carried out on Egyptian antiquities, partly to resolve the debate over the time period in which the pyramids were constructed.

Willard F. Libby and his colleagues analyzed acacia wood taken from the Third Dynasty Step Pyramid of Djoser to test their theory. Based on the 5,568-year half-life of Carbon-14, Libby predicted that the sample should contain about half the amount of Carbon-14 found in living trees (see Arnold and Libby, 1949). The test results supported this calculation about when were the pyramids built.

Later research showed that the amount of Carbon-14 in the atmosphere has varied across history. Scientists therefore introduced calibration techniques to correct radiocarbon dates and account for these natural fluctuations.

The 1984 Radiocarbon Investigation

In 1984, radiocarbon testing was conducted on samples from Old Kingdom monuments in Egypt, with financial backing from supporters of the Edgar Cayce Foundation. A central aim was to better determine the construction dates of the pyramids. The radiocarbon results were then matched against the average reign dates of the rulers listed in the third edition of the Cambridge Ancient History.

On average, the radiocarbon dates turned out to be 374 years earlier than the traditional historical timeline.

Even with this difference, the evidence still confirmed that the Great Pyramid belongs to the historical period recognized by Egyptologists.

The 1994–1995 Radiocarbon Investigation about when were the pyramids built

A second phase of research took place in 1994–1995, supported by the David H. Koch Foundation. This time, the study covered a wider range of monuments, including First Dynasty tombs at Saqqara (2920–2770 BC), Djoser’s pyramid (2630–2611 BC), the pyramids of Giza (2551–2472 BC), selected pyramids from the Fifth Dynasty (2465–2323 BC), selected Sixth Dynasty pyramids (2323–2150 BC), and several Middle Kingdom pyramids (2040–1640 BC). This expanded dataset allowed a more detailed examination of pyramid chronology.

Samples were also taken from the Lost City area of the Giza Plateau Mapping Project, dated to the Fourth Dynasty. Two largely preserved bakeries discovered there in 1991 provided ash and charcoal remains, which are particularly useful for radiocarbon dating.

The 1995 results generally appeared 100 to 200 years older than the dates given in the Cambridge Ancient History, placing them about 200 years later than the 1984 findings.

Comparing the 1984 and 1995 Findings

The total number of samples from both projects allowed statistical comparison only for the pyramids of Djoser, Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure. This comparison helped clarify inconsistencies and improve understanding of pyramid construction dates.

Two notable conclusions were drawn:

• Large differences exist between the 1984 and 1995 dates for Khufu and Khafre, whereas the dates for Djoser and Menkaure are largely consistent.
• The 1995 dates show wide variation even within a single monument. In the case of Khufu’s Great Pyramid, the dates span nearly 400 years.

There is good consistency for the First Dynasty tombs at North Saqqara when historical chronologies are compared with both earlier and recent radiocarbon results based on reed samples.

A similar level of agreement is seen for the Middle Kingdom. Eight calibrated dates from straw in the pyramid of Senwosret II (1897–1878 BC) ranged from 103 years earlier to 78 years later than his historically dated reign. This helps align pyramid construction more accurately within Egypt’s timeline.

Four of these dates differed by only 30, 24, 14, and three years. The oldest date came from charcoal, highlighting the well-known “old wood problem.”

The Giza Pyramid Complex, also called the Giza Necropolis, is one of Egypt’s most important archaeological locations. It includes the Great Pyramid, the Pyramid of Khafre, and the Pyramid of Menkaure, along with their related structures and the Great Sphinx. These monuments were built during the Fourth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom, approximately between 2600 and 2500 BCE. The area also contains numerous temples, tombs, and the remains of a settlement for the workers who constructed these monumental buildings.

Khufu’s Pyramid

Khufu succeeded his father Sneferu, with his mother being Queen Hetepheres I. He ruled around 2650 BCE and his short name, “Khnum Khufu,” means “Khnum protects me.” Khufu is known as the builder of the greatest monument on Earth, the Great Pyramid of Giza, the only surviving wonder of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Surrounding the pyramid is a cemetery including smaller pyramids for his wives and mother as well as mastaba tombs for officials. The original height was 146 meters with a base length of 230 meters and stone weights ranged from 1 to 8 tons or more.

Despite its size, only a very small statue of Khufu, about 7.5 cm, has been found, suggesting he may have prohibited large statues. He named his pyramid “Akhet Khufu,” meaning “Horizon of Khufu,” and scholar Stadelmann notes that Khufu declared himself a god departing from traditional Egyptian beliefs.

Khafre’s Pyramid

The Khafre pyramid complex includes the Valley Temple, the Sphinx Temple, a causeway, the mortuary temple, and the king’s pyramid. Many statues of Khafre were discovered during excavations. The complex also contains five boat pits and a subsidiary pyramid with a passage. The pyramid appears taller than Khufu’s due to its higher location and steeper angle, but it is actually smaller in size and height and still retains part of its limestone casing at the top.

Menkaure’s Pyramid

The Menkaure complex consists of a Valley Temple, a causeway, a mortuary temple and the king’s pyramid, completed around 2510 BCE with three subsidiary queens’ pyramids. The temple once housed statues of Menkaure but the pyramid no longer retains its original limestone casing.

The Sphinx

The Great Sphinx dates to the reign of Khafre. During the New Kingdom, Pharaoh Amenhotep II built a new temple to Hor-em-akhet and later rulers made additions.

The pyramid shape was linked to the Egyptian concept of cosmic creation and believed to help the deceased’s soul ascend to the sky with the sun god Ra. This shape can sometimes be seen in sunlight rays breaking through clouds and is also reflected in obelisks and smaller tombs. Even when New Kingdom pharaohs built tombs in the Valley of the Kings, they maintained the pyramid symbolism, represented naturally by the mountain peak itself.

Building the Great Pyramid took about twenty years with work on the lower passages taking ten years. Stones were quarried locally with casing stones brought from Tura and granite for the inner chambers from Aswan, transported via the Nile. Stones were cut by placing wooden wedges in grooves and soaking them with water until the stones split, then polished using hard stones like granite or diorite.

Ancient Egyptians used wooden sleds and logs to transport stones, with water poured on the sand to reduce friction. Sand was gradually added as construction rose and the pyramid was eventually covered with smooth limestone casing from top to bottom.

When Were the Egyptian Pyramids Built?

Egypt’s large pyramids were achievements of the Old Kingdom society, which rose to prominence in the Nile Valley after 3000 BCE. Historical analysis indicates that the Giza Pyramids were constructed over approximately 85 years, between 2589 and 2504 BCE, illustrating the gradual development of Egyptian engineering across different dynasties.

How Were the Pyramids Constructed?

The Great Pyramid took about twenty years to complete, with ten years dedicated to the lower passages. Stones were quarried locally, while casing stones were brought from Tura and granite for the inner chambers from Aswan, transported via the Nile. The cutting technique involved placing wooden wedges in grooves, soaking them with water until the stones split, then polishing them with hard stones like granite or diorite. Stones were moved on wooden sleds and logs, with water poured on sand to reduce friction. Sand was gradually added as construction progressed, and the pyramid was eventually covered with smooth limestone casing from top to bottom.

Why Did the Ancient Egyptians Choose the Pyramid Shape?

The pyramid shape was associated with the Egyptian concept of cosmic creation and was believed to help the deceased’s soul ascend to the sky with the sun god Ra. This shape is sometimes reflected in sunlight breaking through clouds and also appears in obelisks and smaller tombs. Even in the New Kingdom, pharaohs building tombs in the Valley of the Kings maintained pyramid symbolism, naturally represented by the mountain peak.

Which Pyramids Are Found at the Giza Complex and When Were They Built?

The Giza Pyramid Complex includes:

• The Great Pyramid (Khufu): built around 2580–2560 BCE, it is the largest pyramid and the only surviving wonder of the ancient world.
• Pyramid of Khafre: slightly smaller than Khufu’s, includes the Valley Temple, the Sphinx Temple, and five boat pits. The Great Sphinx is widely believed to represent Khafre.
• Pyramid of Menkaure: completed around 2510 BCE, it includes three smaller queens’ pyramids.

The complex also contains workers’ cemeteries, temples and causeways.

Who Were the Architects and Pharaohs Behind Pyramid Development؟

• Imhotep: the architect of Djoser’s Step Pyramid at Saqqara.
• Sneferu: attempted to perfect the pyramid shape in Dahshur.
• Khufu: under the architect Hemiunu, achieved the ideal pyramid at Giza.
• Khafre and Menkaure: completed the construction of the Giza complex after Khufu.

How Does Radiocarbon Dating Help Determine Pyramid Ages?

Scientists have used the radioactive carbon isotope C14 to date organic materials from the pyramids.

• The earliest experiment tested acacia wood from Djoser’s pyramid, confirming the method’s reliability.
• 1984 study: radiocarbon dates averaged 374 years earlier than historical estimates but confirmed the Great Pyramid belonged to the Old Kingdom era.
• 1994-1995 study: extended sampling to pyramids from the 1st Dynasty to the Middle Kingdom, showing dates generally 100–200 years older than historical dates, with Khufu’s dates scattered over a range of about 400 years.