Mohamed Ali Pasha: History, Achievements & Legacy

Mohamed Ali Pasha is rightfully considered the first ruler of modern Egypt and the founder of its renaissance during the Ottoman era. His reign witnessed numerous significant achievements that profoundly impacted the country’s trajectory. 

Mohamed Ali was known for his sharp intelligence and exceptional leadership skills in managing Egypt’s affairs.

In this article, we will explore the most important and diverse achievements of Mohamed Ali Pasha and his complex relationship with the Ottoman Empire, which governed Egypt at the time.

Mohamed Ali was born in the town of Qawala, part of the Thessaloniki province in Greece, in 1769. His father died when he was very young, and shortly after, his mother passed away, leaving him orphaned at the age of 14. Subsequently, he was sponsored by his uncle, Tusun Pasha, who held the position of head of the guards in Qawala. 

When his uncle died, he was sponsored by a close friend of his father. Mohamed Ali then joined the military, where he demonstrated early brilliance and gained a high and prestigious position due to his outstanding courage and remarkable efficiency. 

He later married Amina Hanem, who was known for her captivating beauty and possessed considerable wealth and influence. They had a son, Ibrahim, who later became a prominent military leader.

Mohamed Ali Pasha passed away in 1848 at the age of 80, leaving an indelible mark on Egyptian history.

Muhammad Ali Pasha was born into an Albanian family in Kavala, Macedonia. He was the second son of a merchant named Ibrahim Agha. After his father died, his uncles and cousins took care of him. 

His uncle gave him the title “Bolukbashi” because he worked hard collecting taxes. His cousin, Sarechesme Halil Agha, gave him the next rank among the Albanian soldiers and he was sent to take control of Egypt after General Napoleon Bonaparte left. He married Emine Nosratli, the daughter of Ali Agha. She was rich, a widow and also his maternal cousin.

When the French campaign, led by Napoleon Bonaparte, arrived in Egypt, the Ottoman Empire issued an urgent decision to send a group of Turkish-Albanian soldiers to liberate Egypt from the French occupation, which threatened its control over the region. Among them was Mohamed Ali, who was promoted to the rank of general in recognition of his military competence. 

He then assumed the position of Commander-in-Chief on July 9, 1805. Subsequently, the Ottoman Sultan Selim III issued a historic decree removing the Ottoman Governor Khurshid Pasha and appointing Mohamed Ali as the official governor of Egypt, following significant popular pressure from Egyptians who saw him as their savior and deliverer.

Mohamed Ali Pasha implemented numerous radical and significant reforms in the army and administration, which contributed to building a strong and modern state. The most prominent of these reforms include:

• He brought in military experts from Europe, mainly French, to train Egyptian soldiers on the latest military methods and advanced combat tactics used in modern European armies.
• He equipped the Egyptian army with numerous weapons imported from abroad, in addition to establishing factories dedicated to manufacturing various weapons, such as the heavy artillery factory in the Citadel, which produced cannons and ammunition for the army.
• He established several specialized military schools to train officers and soldiers in military sciences and various combat arts, such as the War School in Cairo, which was one of the most important military educational institutions in the Middle East.
• He sent numerous student missions to Europe, especially to France and Italy, to gain advanced military knowledge and learn about the latest technologies and military methods used in European armies.
• He manufactured advanced warships to give the Egyptian state a strong naval fleet to defend it and protect its coasts and interests in the Mediterranean and Red Sea.
• He established an organized army modeled after the advanced armies in Western countries, based on compulsory conscription for all Egyptians, which contributed to increasing the size of the army and raising its combat efficiency.

Mohamed Ali Pasha had a significant and effective role in developing the fields of agriculture and industry in Egypt, as he worked on the following:

• He planted many different fruit-bearing trees to harvest their fruits, provide food for Egyptians, and increase agricultural exports.
• He dug a large number of canals and waterways to deliver Nile water to distant agricultural lands and increase cultivated areas.
• Mohammed Ali allocated vast acres for planting silk and mulberry trees, which were used in the manufacture of natural silk, considered a luxury product in global markets.
• He ensured the introduction of many new agricultural crops to Egypt, such as long-staple cotton, which later became one of the most important Egyptian exports and a major source of national income.
• He established many modern sugar factories and advanced oil presses to increase the production of sugar and oils to meet the needs of the local market and for export.
• He established many textile, leather, spinning, and broadcloth factories to develop the textile and leather industries in Egypt and provide clothing and shoes for Egyptians and the army.
• He founded many silk and tent factories that produced luxurious silk fabrics and tents used in the army and official celebrations.
• He established many copper and iron factories, and he also founded glass factories to develop the metal and glass industries in Egypt and meet the needs of the local market for these products.
• He was keen to plant trees for the production of wood, which was used in the manufacture of ships, bridges, and buildings.
• He built a dam on the Nile River to retain Nile water during floods and store it for use in irrigating agricultural lands during times of drought.

Education during the reign of Mohamed Ali Pasha witnessed significant, remarkable, and unprecedented development, as he carried out the following achievements:

• He established numerous modern institutes and schools specializing in various scientific and artistic fields, such as schools of engineering, medicine, pharmacy, agriculture, and languages.
• He sent numerous educational missions to Europe, especially to France, Italy, and England, to gain modern skills and knowledge and learn about the latest scientific and technological developments.
• He worked to develop and update curricula and expand the scope of education to include various social and economic groups of Egyptians.
• He implemented a centralized educational system that he supervised himself, which contributed significantly to ensuring the quality of education in all schools and institutes across the country.
• He established numerous primary and secondary schools in various Egyptian cities and villages, allowing a large number of children and young people to enroll in these schools and receive primary and secondary education.
• He worked to improve the situation of teachers, provide them with a suitable educational environment, increase their salaries, and provide them with the necessary resources of books, equipment, and educational tools.
• Mohamed Ali encouraged the translation of scientific references and foreign books into Arabic to enrich the Arabic library and facilitate access to modern knowledge for Egyptian students and researchers.

Mohamed Ali Pasha was able to advance the Egyptian Economy significantly and achieve a major economic leap that Egypt had not witnessed before, as he carried out many important economic achievements, such as:

• He created Nile boats and ships to make better use of the Nile River in transporting goods and passengers and stimulating internal trade.
• He focused on local production and encouraged emerging Egyptian industries, which contributed significantly to reducing dependence on imports from abroad and providing hard currency.
• Mohammed Ali focused on growing long-staple cotton and exporting it abroad, which led to increased Egyptian exports and significant profits for the state.
• He founded many modern factories in various industrial fields and took care to train Egyptian workers using the latest industrial tools, machines, and equipment.
• He worked to reform, develop, and expand the port of Alexandria to stimulate trade in Egypt and make it one of the most important commercial ports in the Mediterranean.

From 1805 to 1848, Mohamed Ali Pasha held the position of Governor of Egypt and Deputy of the Ottoman Sultan in Egypt. He was the founder of the Alawite dynasty that ruled Egypt until 1952. In 1805, Mohamed Ali was appointed to the province of Egypt by a decree from the Ottoman Sultan. 

After that, Mohamed Ali exploited the weakness of the Ottoman Empire and declared himself Pasha of Egypt and Sudan, gradually gaining independence from the Ottoman Empire.

Mohamed Ali Pasha had a very effective and decisive role in building Egypt’s strong and modern army, and without him, Egypt would not have achieved its independence, strength, and influence in the region. 

He created a strong and organized army equipped with the latest weapons and military equipment, established many military schools to train officers and soldiers at the highest level of competence and experience, founded a large naval fleet for Egypt to defend it in wars and protect its coasts and interests.

He established factories dedicated to the manufacture of military weapons and ammunition. All these achievements contributed significantly to building Egypt’s strong army, which became a formidable regional power.

Mohamed Ali Pasha’s policies led to a significant advancement of the Egyptian economy and the achievement of remarkable progress in various fields, because Mohamed Ali relied on new and innovative policies that contributed to the development of all economic, agricultural, commercial, and industrial fields. 

He focused on local production and encouraged emerging Egyptian industries, and transformed the traditional agricultural economy into a modern cash economy.

He succeeded in reducing dependence on imports and increasing exports, all of which led to increased state revenues and the development of Egypt’s future for the better, making it a strong and prosperous country.

Mohamed Ali Pasha was interested in building many urban and architectural establishments that left a clear mark on Egyptian history, and among the most prominent of these establishments are the following:

• He built a house for the preservation of ancient Egyptian antiquities and issued a decision to prevent the exit of precious Egyptian antiquities outside the country in order to preserve Egyptian heritage and protect it from theft and smuggling.
• He established a large number of new cities, most notably Khartoum, the capital of Sudan, which he founded to be an administrative and commercial center in the region.
• Mohammed Ali founded a huge lighthouse to guide ships at sea and secure maritime navigation in the port of Alexandria.
• He established many military castles and forts to secure the country’s borders and protect Egyptian cities and ports.
• He built government houses and many luxurious palaces that were used as headquarters for government, residence, and official receptions.

Mohammed Ali built a beautiful mosque called the “Muhammad Ali Mosque” between 1830 and 1848. He built it to honor his son Tuson Pasha who died in 1816 and is buried inside the mosque. 

The Turkish architect Yousif Boushnaq designed this mosque. It was built in the early 19th century and is the largest Ottoman mosque. The walls are decorated and it has pretty hanging lamps in Turkish style.

Muhammad Ali wanted to reduce crime in Egypt. He made the first criminal law in 1829 to have more control over the people. He was working to create an independent state. 

He built a system of “Law and Order” so that Christians could be safe in Egypt and European influence could grow. He set up different police forces in many areas, especially in Alexandria and Cairo. Laws changed and autopsy became an important type of evidence in criminal cases in Egypt.

In 1832, Antoine Clot started a new medical school for women when Muhammad Ali Pasha allowed it. The school’s goal was to train “Hakimas” to care for women and children. 

Muhammad Ali Pasha wanted a healthy army and he knew this would be easier if women learned medicine to help their husbands. The school was based on the French system. When Hakimas got married, they were given the title Effendi, the rank of second lieutenant and a monthly salary of 250 piasters.

The Wahhabi War

At the request of the Ottoman Sultan, Mohamed Ali sent armies to Arabia to stop the Wahhabi uprising in the Hijaz region. His son Tusun Pasha, and later Ibrahim Pasha, led these campaigns. They succeeded in bringing the holy cities of Mecca and Medina back under Ottoman control. These victories made Mohamed Ali more respected in the Ottoman Empire and showed the strength of his army.

The Greek War of Independence

In support of the Ottoman Empire’s efforts to suppress the Greek revolt, Muhammad Ali sent a large Egyptian fleet and army led by his son, Ibrahim Pasha. Although they achieved early successes, The campaign concluded with a significant setback for Egypt, as European forces dealt a decisive blow to Muhammad Ali’s fleet at the Battle of Navarino in 1827.

This defeat greatly weakened Egypt’s naval power, but at the same time confirmed Muhammad Ali’s status as an important regional power.

The Syrian Campaigns

Mohamed Ali’s biggest military actions were against the Ottoman Empire itself. In 1831, he invaded Syria and quickly took control of the Levant, then moved into Anatolia. His army, led by his skilled son Ibrahim Pasha, defeated the Ottoman armies many times and came close to reaching Constantinople (Istanbul), the Ottoman capital.

This worried European countries, especially Britain and Russia, because they were afraid the balance of power in the region would change. Because of this, European leaders stepped in and forced Mohamed Ali to stop. But in 1839, when the Ottoman Sultan tried to take back Syria, Ibrahim Pasha defeated the Ottoman army again.

The Mamluks ruled Egypt for more than 600 years and they were a problem for Muhammad Ali Pasha when he tried to expand his control south along the Nile to Upper Egypt. Muhammad Ali made a plan to remove the Mamluk leaders. 

He invited all the Mamluk leaders to celebrate his son Tuson at the Cairo Citadel of Salah El-Din. His soldiers surrounded them and killed them one by one in 1811. Then he sent his army across the country to remove the remaining Mamluks. This is how Muhammad Ali Pasha turned Egypt into a strong regional power.

He gave control of Egypt to his son Ibrahim in 1848, but Ibrahim died soon after. Muhammad Ali himself died in 1849. He left behind a great legacy which we can still see today in the famous Muhammad Ali Mosque in Cairo, a beautiful historical place you can visit in Egypt. 

During his rule, Egypt became a strong country and was treated as an independent nation, not just part of the Ottoman Empire. He created a strong army based on modern science, opened Egypt to trade with Europe and improved education to be similar to European standards.

The End of Mohamed Ali’s Rule and the Deterioration of His Health

In 1848, Mohamed Ali’s health deteriorated and symptoms of old age and weakness appeared. He abdicated power to his son Ibrahim, who was a prominent and famous military leader. 

However, Ibrahim died before officially taking power, and no one informed Mohamed Ali of the news of his son’s death for fear of his health and the deterioration of his psychological state. 

Mohamed Ali died shortly after the death of his son in the Ras El Tin Palace in Alexandria at the age of 80, after leaving a great legacy of achievements and reforms that contributed to building modern Egypt.

Did Mohamed Ali Pasha Occupy Egypt?

Yes, when Mohamed Ali eliminated most of the Mamluks who were in control of affairs in Egypt, he occupied Egypt and controlled it by force of arms and declared himself governor of it by delegation from the Ottoman Sultan.

Who Defeated Mohamed Ali Pasha?

Mohamed Ali Pasha was not defeated in a decisive battle, but was able to achieve great victories over his enemies, but he faced great difficulties and challenges at the end of his reign that led to a decline in his influence, but in the end he maintained his rule over Egypt.

Mohamed Ali Pasha defeated the Mamluks and eliminated them in the famous Citadel massacre, which aimed to liquidate their influence and tighten his control over Egypt.

Why Did Mohamed Ali’s Reforms Fail?

Mohamed Ali’s reforms did not fail completely, but achieved great success in developing and modernizing Egypt, but they faced some difficulties and challenges that led to their non-continuation at the same pace, due to several reasons, including Egypt’s lack of many natural resources and the lack of a sufficiently trained and qualified workforce, in addition to the intervention of European countries in Egyptian affairs and their attempts to undermine Mohamed Ali’s influence.

Mohamed Ali Pasha’s era is characterized by development and prosperity in all fields, because his achievements were a decisive turning point in the history of Egypt, and these achievements have contributed greatly to meeting the needs of the state and achieving progress and development for many years to come, so Mohamed Ali Pasha is considered one of the important rulers who ruled Egypt throughout the ages and left a clear mark on its history.